Grandes exploraciones. La Terra Australis Incognita y los viajes del capitán Cook (3a parte).

 

El HMS Dafne en Cabo de Hornos, 1852.
Por el Almirante Edward Gennys Fanshawe.
Fuente: http://collections.rmg.co.uk

Guiado por su intuición, Cook, había decidido que el retorno a Inglaterra se realizaría por el océano Índico, en lugar de hacer la ruta del Cabo de Hornos, cuya navegación resultaba un verdadero azar en esa época del año. A la vez, eso les ofrecía la oportunidad de continuar con la exploración de la costa de aquel ignoto país. Aunque estaba descartada la posibilidad de que pudiera formar parte del gran continente austral, había despertado el interés de los naturalistas a bordo. A ello se sumaba la posibilidad cierta de anexar esos territorios, a los que nombraron como Nueva Gales del Sur, al dominio británico.

Roman Britain and the Rebellion of Boudica (part 3).

Rome, the Eternal City

The roman eagles would stay in Britain for almost three hundred and fifty years, after the rebellion of Boudica. Were peaceful or turbulent times, with many ups and downs, depending on the situation of Rome. The excessive growth of the empire, had increased the problem of keeping the borders. Besides, the political intrigues at the metropoli showed their influence over the provinces... as some generals became very prominent (and powerful), became the object of imperial suspicions. The reality often demonstrated that this mistrust was not wrong.

Nero

The insurrection of Boudica had such a severe punishment, that emperor Nero decided to replace the governor of Britain, to prevent the worst. But soon Rome would sink into anarchy, losing control over its farther provinces. It brought good times for the celtic resistance. But, by the year 77 AD, Vespasian finally could send his legions to Britannia again, under the command of general Gnaeus Julius Agricola. The latter, was father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, and had been present in times of the warrior queen.

Romans versus Celts

This general imposed the roman peace again. In successive campaigns, he controlled the western lands (Wales). They also advanced far to the north, reaching central Caledonia (Scotia) in the year 84, defeating the celtic tribes at Grampio. Agricola became very successful as a soldier, and also as a civilizing agent... spreading the roman culture in Britain.

Gnaeus Julius Agricola

The next emperor, Domitian, decided that it was no longer worthwhile to continue with the conquest of the northern lands of Britain. Soon he called Agricola back to Rome, to carry out another assingments. It also seems very likely, that he wanted to have a closer look on the conspicuous  general.

The Caledonians and Picts tribes searched for shelter in the northern mountains. They continued harassing the romans for years, consuming time and resources needed in other regions. At the same time, it was producing a progressive fatigue on the troops. In times of emperor Trajan, by the year 100, the Roman Empire reached its largest extent. As a consequence, the contingents in Britannia suffered a severe reduction.

Hadrian: between 117-138 AD

When the emperor Hadrian visited Britain in 122, he saw the necessity to secure their northern limits. For Rome, it was only a heavy load and a constant threat. With a clever strategic view, he ordered to build a wall, from east to west, at a narrow point of the island. There were 117 strongly guarded kilometers of walls and moats. He established that limit, more south from the place Agricola had conquered years before. He chose an exchange of land for calm. Today, we still can stare at the remains of this impressive wall, full of history, between England and Scotland.

Map of Londinium, 2nd century AD

As expected, then came times of peace and well-being for Britain. The cities continued their growth, the roads extended everywhere. Londinium turned into an important port and acquired the glance of any roman city. But the ambition of the imperial power did not let that calm last too much. 

Antoninus Pius

Hadrian's sucesor, Antoninus Pius, ordered his legions to move forward, once more. It seems that he wanted to make history for some achievement or conquest, a disastrous imperial habit if they pretended to keep the things calmed. The romans went very far to the north, and built a second wall, in the year 142. They chose another narrow point of the island (58 kilometers). Antonino's Wall had fortresses and moats, although the construction was not very solid. Now its ruins have the World Heritage status of UNESCO, and may be visited in the lands of Scotland.

Ruins of Roman wall,
at Stanwick Hill, Scotland.

The new border presented serious issues: it was very distant, in the middle of a hostile territory. The fragile wall permited the celtic warriors, to pass through without great efforts. Moreover, the lands  between the two walls were refuge of many rebels, this would cause more struggling and more fatigue to the romans. They already knew how it was: they could defeat those people again and again, but never finished them. At the same time, still persisted the political instability in Rome, and the endless war, in many fronts at the same time. So, the loss of all those territories was only a matter of time.

Commodus-Hercules

Then came times of some stability and wealthness in Britannia, till Commodus reign. His awful government ended with his death, in the year 192. The phantom of civil war, again stroke Rome, and brought consequences to the island. How could that happen?

Septimius Severus

The Roman commander in Britain, became a contender for the crown. With most of his army, he moved to Gaul, leaving their positions at the island abandoned. Finally, he was defeated by another general, Septimius Severus (year 197), who turned out to be the next emperor. By that time, without control, the tribes from the north could cross at their will the unattended walls. Peace on the province was in imminent risk!

Hadrian's Wall. England.

Severus reacted with all his power. Again he took control of the situation with the Picts and the Caledonian tribes, in the year 209. But he understood the difficulty for Rome, to keep that northern frontier. So it happened, that the romans left the Wall of Antoninus for good, holding Hadrian's as the northern limit. Emperor Severus died in Eboracum (the modern city of York), it was the year 211.

Antoninus' Wall, near Fort Cumbernauld.

Then, chance played for the Roman-British settlers, when the lands to the north of Hadrian’s wall submerged in chaos. In that time, ocurred the invasion of Scotish tribes and Celts from the near Hibernia (now Ireland). Those turmoils at the north, brought peace and calm to the southern territories, during almost a hundred years. Were times, when romanization of Britain reached its peak, particularly between the higher classes, from the urban zones. Beneath, underlaid a rebellious people, trying to keep their legacy. In fact, they would never assimilate Roman culture, as some other western provinces did (like Hispania and Gaul).

Trajan Column. Rome.

But the good times for Britain, were merely a coincidence, almost an illusion. It was a mix of several simultaneous events, such as the ineptitude of most emperors, and the ambition of the generals. These, coincided with the more difficult defense of distant frontiers, and also the northern Scottish invasions. The loss of those territories and the disintegration of the empire was already looming.

 The Spear of Destiny.
Hofburg Palace. Vienna, Austria.

The Celtic chose a curious manner, to manifest their rebellion: Christianity took its roots in Britain. It seemed a good way to reject the pagan beliefs of Rome. By then, maybe had their origin, the stories of The Holy Grail and the Sacred Spear, brought there by Joseph of Arimathea, many years before. Those beautiful stories, somehow are related to King Arthur's legend, appeared some centuries later. A mix of Christianity with Celtic cults, and some of the Druid misteries is clearly shown there. It would be very interesting to search more about the historical basis of all that. 

Diocletian. Istanbul Archeological Musem.
Photo: G. Dall' Orto, 2006 (cropped).

Diocletian, another general, came to power in 284. He had enough wisdom to carry out a reform of the government: since that moment, there would be a western and an eastern emperor. Each one, would choose his successor, or Caesar. This way, Constantius Chlorus became heir of the throne of the Western Empire. He had to exert the power in Britain, so he established there. Again came the times of welfare, and most of all, of tranquility. The cruel hunting of Christians did not took place there. He died in Eboracum (York), as the emperor of the West, in the year 306. He was Constantius I. So, the wheel of chance was turning again!

Constantine the Great. York, UK.

The so named Tetrarchy, had problems from its beginning. The son of Constantius I, Constantine, had not achieved the nomination as successor, but held a strong support from the army. So, he faced and finished every possible rival; by the year 324, he detented an absolute power. He made Christianity the official religion, and moved the capital of the empire to Constantinople (now Istanbul), in 330.

By that time, the pressure at the borders of the empire, was increasing constantly. The Germans, had become a real menace. In Britannia, those were times of continous military weakening. As a consequence, the rebels could move and attack everywhere, with great ease.

Theodosius I

In the year of 367, Rome could take control of the situation, for the last time. The legions defeated the rebels and settled in triumph at Londinium. It was the moment of emperor Theodosius I, who turned to be a good ruler. But the unity of the empire, was already a fiction. When he died in 395, the Western Empire was leading to nothing. The Germanic invaders, finally overflowed the frontiers. Then, came the time, when war touched the boundaries of the city of Rome, and they needed all their legions there, there was no other choice.

Bath Cathedral. The Roman Church.

The Roman legions left the island of Great Britain in the year 407, and their boots would never walk again on that land. It has been said, that the general commander aspired to the imperial power. The British community remained abandoned at their own fate: but some of them managed to escape to Gaul. Latin culture and everything with any relation, was almost completely eradicated. Even Christianity faded away, and the Celtic spirit came back strongly. In the future, only the Roman religion would return to the island.

Germanic Warriors.

With the passage of time, the British Isles again would suffer another waves of invaders. According to their origin, they were: 1) Germanic: the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons. 2) Nordic: The Vikings and the Normans. The Celts again would fall, and with them, so the memory of the Romans finally resulted erased. 

Even the Celtic tradition was displaced by the Anglo-Saxon culture, leaving only vestiges. Britannia was the only western Roman province where such a process happened.  Now, is impossible to imagine how could the history had been if the Roman influence over these lands would have remained.

Eagle relief on stone from Picts. Scotland.

As for the Picts and the Scots... they would continue fighting for their northern lands. They always did it, and always will do. They would give birth to a great nation, which:


               "Never will be attacked with impunity..."